2011年5月1日 星期日

[KPI] Balanced scorecard 平衡計分卡

What's Balanced scorcard

The balanced scorecard (BSC) is a strategic performance management tool - a semi-standard structured report supported by proven design methods and automation tools that can be used by managers to keep track of the execution of activities by staff within their control and monitor the consequences arising from these actions.[1] It is perhaps the best known of several such frameworks (for example, it is the most widely adopted performance management framework reported in the annual survey of management tools undertaken by Bain & Company, and has been widely adopted in English-speaking western countries and Scandinavia in the early 1990s). Since 2000, use of Balanced Scorecard, its derivatives (e.g. performance prism), and other similar tools (e.g. Results Based Management) has become common in the Middle East, Asia and Spanish-speaking countries also.[citation needed]

The four perspectives
The 1st Generation design method proposed by Kaplan and Norton was based on the use of three non-financial topic areas as prompts to aid the identification of non-financial measures in addition to one looking at Financial. Four "perspectives" were proposed:[21]

    * Financial: encourages the identification of a few relevant high-level financial measures. In particular, designers were encouraged to choose measures that helped inform the answer to the question "How do we look to shareholders?"
    * Customer: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "How do customers see us?"
    * Internal Business Processes: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "What must we excel at?"
    * Learning and Growth: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "Can we continue to improve and create value?".

These 'prompt questions' illustrate that Kaplan and Norton were thinking about the needs of small to medium sized commercial organizations in the USA[citation needed] (the target demographic for the Harvard Business Review) when choosing these topic areas. They are not very helpful to other kinds of organizations, and much of what has been written on Balanced Scorecard since has, in one way or another, focused on the identification of alternative headings more suited to a broader range of organizations.


resources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_scorecard


延伸閱讀:
1.平衡計分卡與商業智慧 http://www.iiiedu.org.tw/knowledge/knowledge20040731_2.htm
2.平衡計分卡與績效管理 http://www.chb.com.tw/wps/wcm/connect/web/resources/file/eb21280e816812f/57702.pdf
3. 策略地圖與平衡計分卡 http://cdnet.stpi.org.tw/techroom/analysis/pat_A077.htm
4. 為什麼要了解平衡計分卡 http://www.dsc.com.tw/event/wferpnew/Bsc.pdf

2011年4月26日 星期二

[MIS] PLM 資訊系統

何謂 PLM
產品生命週期管理系統(PLM, Product Lifecycle Management),從字面上來看,綜觀產品的上、下游,舉凡需求、規格、研發、設計、工程、製造、銷售、服務與維護,每一個階段所衍生出來相關資 料,都在 PLM 的管理範圍內。而從技術觀念而言,在企業內所有與產品相關的資料,以及與這些產品資料相關的作業,經由資訊系統做有效的整合性管控與運作,此即為 PLM。
PLM 的定義
廣義來說,從全企業的角度來談產品資料(Data)的管理與其作業程序(Process)的管理,也就是 PLM 是一種概念或方法,協助企業管理 Data 與其 Process。若從狹義上來講,指研發至工程規劃領域之應用,強調在 R&D 與工程作業階段如何有效的整合管理產品資料(藍圖/文件)與作業流程(工程作業程序執行),同時探究如何整合後端之 ERP 、 MRP、MRPII 系統及 SCM 、CRM 系統。
PLM 的範圍
PLM 的涵蓋範圍,由傳統 PDM 延伸,重視產品的生命週期,增加綜觀全局的專案管理(PM, Project Management),統合企業內各相關資訊,更可將統合後的資訊,提供或整合至與客戶間之協同作業或資料交換的平台,擴大 PLM 的涵蓋範圍及運用。
2. 用 PLM 管理 RD 延續產品生命週期更活力
產品研發是企業競爭命脈之所繫,但往往也是管理上的死角,如果能隨時掌握產品研發的各項資訊,如各研發專案的進度統計、各派工及產出完成率、延誤率、… 等,則可針對各項執行缺失,進行支援或糾正,縮短產品上市時間、降低工程變更成本、妥善管理研發成果,大幅提升產品研發的效率及品質。除了傳統 PDM 管理之產品資料,如圖檔文件、產品、料件、BOM、各流程表單等之版本版次、申請審查設變電子流程、權限控管等功能之外,PLM 更加強產品研發的專案管理面,確實做好纏品研發的專案管理,並彙整各項管理資訊,提供企業經營者政策擬定、高階主管缺失修正、基層主管執行追蹤之用。
資料來源: http://www.ares.com.tw/products/plm.php


延伸閱讀
1. Product Life Cycle Management : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_lifecycle_management

[Methodology] 模糊德菲法

此理論最早由Murray, Pipino and Gigch(1985)將模糊理論與德菲法相結合所提出。因為反覆的問卷過程將整個時間延長過久,因Ishikawa et al.(1993)提出Max-Min法與模糊整合(Fuzzy Integration)法,來解決之前的缺點。若採用Max-Min法,來整合多位專家之看法及意見,使之達成共識及一致性時。

用三角模糊數來整合專家認知,改善傳統德菲法中只能提供50%資訊的缺失,並藉由「灰色地帶檢定法」來檢驗其是否已達到收斂;應用「可能性範圍的最大值與 最小值」的觀念,來取代Ishikawa et al.(1993)的模糊德菲法模式中「最有可能」與「最不可能」的觀念,使得分析結果更為嚴謹且合理。模糊德菲法之應用亦越來越重要與廣泛,如:一般統 計探討(Murray, Pipino & Gigch (1985); Ishikawa et al.(1993)),公司經營績效或流程之分析(Liang, Hsieh & Ling(2006); Chang, Huang & Lin(2000); 鄭超文(2000); Chang, Tsujimura, Gen & Tozawa(1995)),指標建構與評估(陳郁婷(2006);王文良,盧一帆,張宏哲,劉安琪(2006); 郭訓德,陳家榮(2007); Chang & Wang(2006))等,於醫療領域亦有多篇文章利用模糊德菲法進行研究(楊錦洲,陳建誠,陳百盛(2006);王文良等人(2006))。再次說明, 模糊德菲法之重要性。
除此之外,專家的選擇是模糊德菲法成敗的關鍵,訪談之專家需具有與議題相關之專長、豐富工作或研究經驗等不同專業領域專家,參與全面性地徵詢意見。遴選專 家以產、官、學專家作為深度訪談之對象,選擇的對象數量依據林伯河(2002)建議一般而言研究,持續參與的專家群至少應在10位以上。


延伸閱讀:
1. 模糊理論相關文獻探討及研究
2. 學校組織學習能耐衡量指標建構之研究: 模糊德菲法與模糊層級分析法之應用

[Methodology] 德菲法

德菲法和焦團體訪法同樣是資料收集與分析的其中一種方法,只是它的操作過程和焦點團體訪談有很大的不同,焦點團體所募集的對象是針對討論的「焦點」有共同經驗或相同背景的人員,成員間會有共通的語言及共通關心的事件,訪談是成員一起在同個地點中同時進行。德菲法(Delphi)是名目團體技巧(nominal group technique)的一項應用,它以蒐集專家的意見來發展預測未來事件及趨勢,德菲(Delphi)是古希臘城名,相傳城中阿波羅聖殿能預卜未來,因而命名。大致上的操作流程為專家之間以匿名的方式,不會互相見面,針對同樣的問題提出自己的看法與意見,經過一次又一次的收集及統計各個專家的意見,然後再次提供給專家做看法與意見的修正,反覆多次直到意見比較集中之後做最後的統計分析,得到推測的結論。

一般工作程序如下:
1)確定調查目的,擬訂調查提綱。首先必須確定目標,擬訂出要求專家回答問題的詳細提綱,並同時向專家提供有關背景材料,包括預測目的、期限、調查表填寫方法及其它希望要求等說明。
2)選擇一批熟悉本問題的專家,一般至少為20人左右,包括理論和實踐等各方面專家。
3)以通信方式向各位選定專家發出調查表,徵詢意見。(4)對返回的意見進行歸納綜合、定量統計分析後再寄給有關專家,如此往復,經過三、四輪意見比較集中後進行數據處理與綜合得出結果。
每一輪時間約
710天,總共約一個月左右即可得到大致結果,時間過短因專家很忙難於反饋,時間過長則外界干擾因素增多,影響結果的客觀性。

這種方法的優點主要是簡便易行,具有一定科學性和實用性,因為是以匿名的方式進行,可以避免會議討論時產生的害怕權威隨聲附和,或固執已見,或因顧慮情面不願與他人意見衝突等弊病;而多次有控制的意見反饋,也可使大家發表的意見較快收斂,參加者也易接受結論,具有一定程度綜合意見的客觀性。但缺點是由於專家一般的時間緊,回答總是往往比較草率,同時由於預測主要依靠專家,因此歸根到底仍屬專家們的集體主觀判斷。此外,在選擇合適的專家方面也較困難,徵詢意見的時間較長,對於需要快速判斷的預測難使用等。
(資料來源:http://blog.yam.com/cmgcd/article/13591801)

延伸閱讀:
1. 德菲法和焦點團體法
2. Wiki Delphi Method
3. 工研院國際合作知識分享網 德菲法

[Methodology] 模糊理論

模糊的基本概念

概念是思維的基本形式之一,它反映了客觀事物的本質特征。人類在認識過程中,把感覺到的事物的共同特點抽象出來加以概括,這就形成了概念。比如 從白雪、白馬、白紙等事物中抽象出“白”的概念。一個概念有它的內涵和外延,內涵是指該概念所反映的事物本質屬性的總和,也就是概念的內容。外延是指一個 概念所確指的對象的範圍。例如“人”這個概念的內涵是指能製造工具,並使用工具進行勞動的動物,外延是指古今中外一切的人。
所謂模糊概念是指這個概念的外延具有不確定性,或者說它的外延是不清晰的,是模糊的。例如“青年”這個概念,它的內涵我們是清楚的,但是它的外延,即什麼樣的年齡階段內的人是青年,恐怕就很難說情楚,因為在“年輕”和“不年輕”之間沒有一個確定的邊界,這就是一個模糊概念。
需要註意的幾點:首先,人們在認識模糊性時,是允許有主觀性的,也就是說每個人對模糊事物的界限不完全一樣,承認一定的主觀性是認識模 糊性的一個特點。例如,我們讓100個人說出“年輕人”的年齡範圍,那麼我們將得到100個不同的答案。儘管如此,當我們用模糊統計的方法進行分析時,年 輕人的年齡界限分佈又具有一定的規律性;
其次,模糊性是精確性的對立面,但不能消極地理解模糊性代表的是落後的生產力,恰恰相反,我們在處理客觀事物時,經常藉助於模糊性。例 如,在一個有許多人的房間里,找一位“年老的高個子男人”,這是不難辦到的。這裡所說的“年老”、“高個子”都是模糊概念,然而我們只要將這些模糊概念經 過頭腦的分析判斷,很快就可以在人群中找到此人。如果我們要求用電腦查詢,那麼就要把所有人的年齡,身高的具體數據輸入電腦,然後我們才可以從人群中找這 樣的人。
最後,人們對模糊性的認識往往同隨機性混淆起來,其實它們之間有著根本的區別。隨機性是其本身具有明確的含義,只是由於發生的條件不充 分,而使得在條件與事件之間不能出現確定的因果關係,從而事件的出現與否表現出一種不確定性。而事物的模糊性是指我們要處理的事物的概念本身就是模糊的, 即一個對象是否符合這個概念難以確定,也就是由於概念外延模糊而帶來的不確定性。
 資料來源:智庫 MBA Lib 模糊理論


延伸閱讀:
1. [模糊理論] 模糊理論筆記
2. [模糊理論] 智庫 模糊理論
3. [模糊理論] CH1 模糊理論簡介 巫沛倉博士
4. [模糊理論] 模糊理論簡介 楊敏生

[Methodology ]路徑分析法 Path Analysis

In statistics, path analysis is used to describe the directed dependencies among a set of variables. This includes models equivalent to any form of multiple regression analysis, factor analysis, canonical correlation analysis, discriminant analysis, as well as more general families of models in the multivariate analysis of variance and covariance analyses (MANOVA, ANOVA, ANCOVA).
In addition to being thought of as a form of multiple regression focusing on causality, path analysis can be viewed as a special case of structural equation modeling (SEM) – one in which only single indicators are employed for each of the variables in the causal model. That is, path analysis is SEM with a structural model, but no measurement model. Other terms used to refer to path analysis include causal modeling, analysis of covariance structures, and latent variable models.
 (resources:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_analysis_%28statistics%29)    


Historical Background
Path analysis was developed as a method of decomposing correlations into different pieces for interpretation of effects (e.g., how does parental education influence children's income 40 years later?). Path analysis is closely related to multiple regression; you might say that regression is a special case of path analysis. Some people call this stuff (path analysis and related techniques) "causal modeling." The reason for this name is that the techniques allow us to test theoretical propositions about cause and effect without manipulating variables. However, the "causal" in "causal modeling" refers to an assumption of the model rather than a property of the output or consequence of the technique. That is, people assume some variables are causally related, and test propositions about them using the techniques. If the propositions are supported, it does NOT prove that the causal assumptions are correct.
(resources:http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~mbrannic/files/regression/Pathan.html)




延伸閱讀:
1. 部落格文章 - 路徑分析法
2.  利用路徑分析法探討旅遊網站如何提升顧客忠誠度
3.  國民中學學校行政瘋狂行為的成因與影響之路徑分析
4. 路徑分析範例
5.  Path Analysis
6. Wiki Pedia: Path Analysis

2011年4月24日 星期日

[AHP] 分析層級程序法

分析層級程序法(Analytic Hierarchical Process ; AHP),是由美國作業研究專家、匹茲堡大學教授Thomas L. Saaty1971年所創。最初目的是為解決埃及國防部應變計畫問題,將複雜且非結構化的問題系統化,由高層次往低層次逐步求得各方案的優先權重,提供決策者選擇適當方案的充分資訊。凡優先權重值愈大的方案表示被採納的優先順序愈高,可降低決策錯誤的風險。AHP法是一個有組織的架構,它可以使複雜的問題上簡化且促使本能地作出有效決策(楊維楨,2003:269)AHP法同時提供群體決策的一個有效的架構以規範群思考的過程,將問題的每個變數給予一個可量化的數值,幫助決策者保持凝聚性的思考型態而得到最適的結論,群體決策的好處是增加判斷一致性而增強AHP為決策工具的信賴度,其最大的特點在於將問題予以層級化、結構化及量化(陳湛勻,1999:465-466)

Analytic Hierarchical Process was created by an American Operation Research Expert, University of Pittsburgh Professor Thomas L. Saaty in 1971. The original purpose is to solve the plan problem of Egyptian Ministry of Defense. The method can systematize complicated and non-constructive problem, gradually obtain the priority weights of each method from high level to low level providing the decision maker with proper and adequate information. Methods with higher priority weights will be adopted first, and the risk of wrong decision would be lower. AHP is an organized structure it can simplify complicated question and make effective decision. AHP also provides the group decision an effective framework to manage the thinking process. Every variable will be given a quantitative value to assist the decision maker come up with the most appropriate conclusion. The advantage of group decision is improve the consistence and strengthen the reliability of AHP as an decision tool, and sorting questions into hierarchies, structures and quantifying are its characteristics.
依決策問題的特性,評估準則可選取非常多樣化,但可能會失去原有評估的意義與增加評估的困難性。因此,評估準則必須加以過濾選取條件,以符合完備性、可操作性、可分解性、無重複性、以及最小規模性等性質。根據所選取的m個準則,利用AHP法求取專家個別的偏好,再以算術平均或幾何平均方式將所有專家的偏好加以整合。至於AHP法所採用的名義尺度並非實值尺度,而須作成簡明的成對比較評比。一般名義尺度的劃分是兩個因素有相同重要,這因素比另一因素可分別為等同重要、稍重要、頗重要、極重要、絕對重要為五個尺度(朱豔芳等,2005:259)
AHP主要應用在不確定的情況下有數個評估準則的決策問題,需匯集學者專家的意見,再把需要評估且複雜的決策問題予以建立層級性的評量指標,藉由名義尺度區分各層級指標成對比較矩陣後,計算出矩陣之特徵向量(eigenvector),代表某一層級指標間的權重,然後依次求出每一層級的指標權重,整理後做為決策參考(吳世宏,2003:16;朱豔芳等,2005:255)
據葉堂宇(1997:3-38)AHP法運作上的三大原則,亦可視為三個工作階段的說法,如第一個工作階段所建立的層級包含三個層次,分別為目標層、準則層及方案層。換言之,決策者首先必須瞭解決策的最終目標是要解決什麼問題,需要考量那些因素,尋求何種方案可供選擇。

AHP法可以是將複雜的系統分成異質性的不同層級,同質性高的則置於同一層級。層級的劃分有兩大類:結構與功能,結構性層級是將複雜系統根據特性(如大小、形狀、年紀)以遞減方式有次序的劃分其組成成份。結構性層級可將複雜事件之主題分為子題,或再細分。相反地,功能性層級則是將複雜系統根據其實質關係分為構成要素。目前AHP法已應用於決策問題有13種,如決定優先順序、產生可行方案、選擇最佳方案、決定需要條件、根據成本效益分析制定決策、資源分配、預測結果-風險評估、衡量績效、系統設計、確保系統穩定性、最適化、策略或政策規劃、衝突解決(朱豔芳等,2005:254-255)。根據葉堂宇(1997:3-13)在政策支援系統中說明AHP作業流程(如圖2-3-1),可以清楚地瞭解每個過程的對應關係。
參照楊維楨(2003:270)所示AHP法 的評估步驟,大致可分為下列九項:第一,決策問題之認定:定義問題與評估要素之分層;第二,列舉各評估因素:可用群體腦力激盪法或德菲法;第三,建立層 級:完整層級是指每上下層級間之要素彼此間都有所相連如教育均等之分析層級結構,不完整層級則是指上下層級間並非全部都有連結(如圖2-3-2);成偶比對評估:五種強度中分九個尺度,即介於五種強度本身及之間計九個尺度;建立成偶比對矩陣:以每層評比要素為基準,以其所屬之下一層的n個評比要素,進行兩兩相比的成偶矩陣,所產生的C(n,2)=n(n-1)/2個評估值aij即為成偶比對矩陣;計算各比對矩陣的優先向量及最大特徵值:ArA x rAArrλmaxA’/nλmax是比較矩陣的最大特徵,λmax愈接近n(矩陣中因數的個數),則愈具有一致性;求一致性指標(Consistency Index, C. I.)與一致性比率(Consistency Ratio, C.R.):一致性比率CRCIRI隨機指標(Random Index) (如表2-3-2)CI(λmaxn)(n1);計算整體層級的一致性指標與一致性比率:C. R. H = C. I. HR. I. H. C. R. H. < 0.1時,表示整個層級的一致性達到可接受的水準;計算整體層級的總優先向量:提供決策目標的相對優先順序。

由上可知,AHP法在計算各因素(如目標、準則)之重要性時,所得結果必須經過一致性檢定,這樣較有理論基礎且深具客觀性。但此法在評定時,無法整合各備選方案與各準則之評估值,使得評估的結果未必能夠與真實情況相互一致。故在實務應用方面,若能愈完整地將資訊供給評估者(包括評選方案的描述、實際的準則評估值等),必能使得評估的方法及結果,愈趨於合理(朱豔芳等,2005:268)

在許多決策分析的情況下,一組事物是否成一個類群,一個事物是否屬於某一個子類,都有亦此亦彼的模糊性質,則須利用模糊數學來描述與解決(陳湛勻,1999:482)。質言之,模糊理論(Fuzzy Theory)係以客觀的手段來分析事理,普遍地重視理性,亦較合乎人為所致之「兩極化危機」的反制作為。模糊理論類似於類比信號的連續性,模糊性的科學方法當然與模糊性的混亂絕對不同的。
模糊理論實際上是模糊集合、模糊關係、模糊邏輯、模糊控制、模糊量測等理論之泛稱,是一門用以將模糊概念量化的學問。模糊理論的研究是起源於西元1965年美國Califoria大學L.A.Zadeh教授所倡,將人性間的主觀性語言經過量化過程的處理,所表現的方法就是一種「模糊集合」(吳世宏,2003:26)。傳統明確集合的特徵函數採用非01的二分法,而模糊集合的基本精神則是將其擴展成由01任何值,稱為歸屬函數,當一個元素屬於某集合的程度越大時,其歸屬程度就越接近於1,否則越接近於0(吳孟勤,2003:19-26)
事實上,歸屬函數的模糊數包括有三角形、梯形、高斯(常態)S 函數、π 函數,本文選用梯形歸隸函數公式如后,圖形說明則如圖2-

本研究所採用的模糊多準則決策模式,乃在於改良原來AHP 法的缺失,整合了Fuzzy 理論的功能,模糊多準則模式係依AHP 所建立的指標,進行數值標準化,如x=(原始數據-原始數據的平均值)/原始數據標準值,並需把標準化數值壓縮到[0,1]閉區間,其極值標準化公式為:
X=(X-Xmin)(Xmax-Xmin)(X=Xmax 時,則X=1;當X=Xmin 時,則X=0)。接著須進行標定,所謂「標定」就是根據實際情況,按一個準則或某一種方法,給予論域X 中的元素兩兩相比之間所賦予的閉區間之數,即計算出衡量被分類對象間相似程度的統計量,以確定論域上的相似關係R(楊維楨,1999:483)
簡言之,就AHP 分析模型的權重值,對研究指標之向量轉移為具體評鑑函數,依區間大小進行解模糊化後再按指標排序而得解。總括來說,模糊決策分析可以解決多目標、多屬性、多層次、多效用、多準則的複雜度,最後依動態類聚做出決策,確使意見集中與精確評判(楊維楨,1999:488-492)。筆者藉此增加AHP 法的可信度,促以綜合評判所欲分析的模型,以期得到正面的研究結果。

資料來源: http://tw.myblog.yahoo.com/hudison2001/article?mid=8002
延伸閱讀:層級分析法(AHP)理論與實作 講義 網路資源下載
                     (國立東華大學企業管理學系教授)

2011年4月22日 星期五

[Trans.][TQM] QFD

resources: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3e/A1_House_of_Quality.png
品質機能展開
(Quality Function Deployment, QFD)是團隊合作的方式,聆聽顧客的聲音,以正確了解顧客的需求,採用邏輯方法,以決定如何運用可用資源以最佳的方法來實現顧客的需求,根據顧客的心聲(需求)來設計產品或服務。品質機能展開所使用的工具是矩陣,稱為品質屋(House of Quality),參見圖3-1。品質屋左側所例的是顧客的需求,包括主要需求、詳細內容和各項目之重要性評分等。品質屋的上側是技術需求項目,中心是關係矩陣用以表示顧客需求和技術需求的關連程度。品質屋的底部是各項技術需求的目標值,是QFD活動的主要輸出,將構成下一層的品質屋的需求。
Trans.
Quality Function Deployment, QFD
QFD is used with teamwork to listen to the customers. In order to accurately understand customers’ needs, logical method is used to decide how to utilize resource to satisfy customers. Products or services is designed based on customers’ needs. The tool used in QFD is metrics, called House of Quality (HOQ). On the left side of the HOQ are customers’ needs including major demands, detailed contents, and score of importance, etc. on the upper side listed technical requirement, and center the relation metrics which is used to explain the relationship between customers’ needs and technical requirements. The target values of each technical requirement are listed at the bottom of HOQ, and are also the main outputs of QFD which constructs the demand of next HOQ.
QFD
可以為組織中的每一個人提供一幅路徑圖(road map),揭示從設計到服務傳遞過程的每一個步驟應該怎樣做才能滿足顧客的需求。(註5)

QFD provides every member in the organization with their own road maps showing every processes to satisfy customers from design stage to service delivery.

QFD的第一個步驟是決定誰是顧客(Who),再決定顧客想要什麼(What),以及顧客的需求要如何達成(How)。顧客的需求或期望會隨著時間而改變,顧客的需求也很難用言語來確切形容,可以採用面談、問卷、市場調查數據、焦點訪談等方法,來掌握顧客的真正需求。顧客的需求通常都是以口語化的辭彙來表示,而非技術用語,如好用、舒服等,設計者必須將這些一般性的需求項目加以展開,變成更為明確的項目。例如圖書館的借還書流通服務,讀者的需求項目可能是”可靠”,這項特性事實上可以再展開成為流通紀綠沒有錯誤、流通系統不會停機、催還通知寄到正確的地址等。在獲得顧客需求之後,可再將其加以分類,並以階層化的方式陳列。

QFD的第二個步驟是將顧客的需求轉換成技術需求,以建立產品或製程特性的目標值。這個階段的內部技術用語稱為替化品質特性或設計需求,是滿足顧客需求的HOW,最好以可量測的用語來表示,方便管制並與目標值比較。同樣的,技術需求也可以分類,並以階層化的方式排列。顧客需求和技術需求之間可以用定量或定性的方式來表示其間的關係。每項顧客需求必須至少與一項技術需求有強烈的關係,否則表示技術需求並未列舉完整。如果顧客需求和技術需求之間沒有任何關係,或者大部份的關係都很弱,就表示目前的產品設計將無法滿足顧客的需求。此外,關係矩陣也可以指出產品設計上的衝突。
由於產品勢必會有競爭者,因此,必須針對產品的主要特性和優勢加以分析。也就是由顧客針對需求項目做重要性評比和競爭評估
(competitive evaluation)。重要性評比可以知道改善項目的優先順序,競爭評估則可以了解顧客對產品的看法和競爭優勢。
第三個階段是進行技術評估,包括產品和製程的技術,可靠度和安全性的考量,以及成本、數量和利潤的評估。

resources: http://tw.myblog.yahoo.com/chen_mitchell/article?mid=-2&next=231&l=f&fid=13

extended reading: http://www.npd-solutions.com/qfd.html

2011年4月20日 星期三

[TQM][Deming] Dr. Demings 14 Points

Dr. Demings 14 Points

1. Constancy of purpose

Create constancy of purpose for continual improvement of products and service to society, allocating resources to provide for long range needs rather than only short term profitability, with a plan to become competitive, to stay in business, and to provide jobs.

2. The new philosophy

Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age, created in Japan. We can no longer live with commonly accepted levels of delays, mistakes, defective materials, and defective workmanship. Transformation of Western management style is necessary to halt the continued decline of business and industry.

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection

Eliminate the need for mass inspection as the way of life to achieve quality by building quality into the product in the first place. Require statistical evidence of built in quality in both manufacturing and purchasing functions.

4. End lowest tender contracts

End the practice of awarding business solely on the basis of price tag. Instead require meaningful measures of quality along with price. Reduce the number of suppliers for the same item by eliminating those that do not qualify with statistical and other evidence of quality. The aim is to minimize total cost, not merely initial cost, by minimizing variation. This may be achieved by moving toward a single supplier for any one item, on a long term relationship of loyalty and trust. Purchasing managers have a new job, and must learn it.

5. Improve every process

Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production, and service. Search continually for problems in order to improve every activity in the company, to improve quality and productivity, and thus to constantly decrease costs. Institute innovation and constant improvement of product, service, and process. It is management's job to work continually on the system (design, incoming materials, maintenance, improvement of machines, supervision, training, retraining).

6. Institute training on the job

Institute modern methods of training on the job for all, including management, to make better use of every employee. New skills are required to keep up with changes in materials, methods, product and service design, machinery, techniques, and service.

7. Institute leadership

Adopt and institute leadership aimed at helping people do a better job. The responsibility of managers and supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality. Improvement of quality will automatically improve productivity. Management must ensure that immediate action is taken on reports of inherited defects, maintenance requirements, poor tools, fuzzy operational definitions, and all conditions detrimental to quality.
   
8. Drive out fear

Encourage effective two way communication and other means to drive out fear throughout the organization so that everybody may work effectively and more productively for the company.

9. Break down barriers

Break down barriers between departments and staff areas. People in different areas, such as Leasing, Maintenance, Administration, must work in teams to tackle problems that may be encountered with products or service.

10. Eliminate exhortations

Eliminate the use of slogans, posters and exhortations for the work force, demanding Zero Defects and new levels of productivity, without providing methods. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships; the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system, and thus lie beyond the power of the work force.

11. Eliminate arbitrary numerical targets

Eliminate work standards that prescribe quotas for the work force and numerical goals for people in management. Substitute aids and helpful leadership in order to achieve continual improvement of quality and productivity.

12. Permit pride of workmanship

Remove the barriers that rob hourly workers, and people in management, of their right to pride of workmanship. This implies, among other things, abolition of the annual merit rating (appraisal of performance) and of Management by Objective. Again, the responsibility of managers, supervisors, foremen must be changed from sheer numbers to quality.

13. Encourage education

Institute a vigorous program of education, and encourage self improvement for everyone. What an organization needs is not just good people; it needs people that are improving with education. Advances in competitive position will have their roots in knowledge.

14. Top management commitment and action

Clearly define top management's permanent commitment to ever improving quality and productivity, and their obligation to implement all of these principles. Indeed, it is not enough that top management commit themselves for life to quality and productivity. They must know what it is that they are committed to—that is, what they must do. Create a structure in top management that will push every day on the preceding 13 Points, and take action in order to accomplish the transformation. Support is not enough: action is required!

Resources:  http://www.lii.net/deming.html

戴明轉危為安(OUT OF THE CRISIS)書中「管理十四要點」構成他對品質與管理的主要思想理念,值得我們用心思考,茲概述如下:
  1. 建立堅定不移的目標︰用以改進產品與服務的品質,使企業具競爭力,能永續經營下去。
  2. 採用新的經營哲學︰企業正處於一個嶄新的經營年代,管理者必須認清新時代的挑戰,確知自己的責任何在,挺身領導全體員工應變。
  3. 停止倚賴檢驗以獲得品質︰以「一開始就製造出高品質」的方式,來取代大量的檢驗。
  4. 停止僅以價格作為考量交易的基礎︰應以最低總成本來考量。一種物料最好向同一供應商採購,並建立長期忠誠與互信的夥伴關係。
  5. 不斷改進生產與服務系統︰改善品質與生產力,進而持續降低成本。
  6. 進行在職訓練︰提升員工能力,對工作充分了解並能有效執行。
  7. 建立領導風格︰確認督導的目的在於協助人員、機器與裝備把工作做得更好。除了生產線上的作業員之外,管理者的表現也應受督導。
  8. 排除恐懼︰使得每一員工能在有安全感的環境中,更有效率地為公司工作。
  9. 消除各部門間的藩籬︰不論是研發、設計、製造或行銷部門的人員,都應通力合作,形成團隊,共同思考產品在使用上可能發生的問題,並防患於未然。
  10. 避免向員工喊口號、說教,或訂目標︰要求員工達到零缺點或新的生產力水準,只會造成他們的反感,形成與公司對立的關係。因為許多品質與生產力低落的情形,是制度不良所造成的,不應一味要求員工。
  11. 以領導方式達成工作要求︰不以數字化目標要求員工,或是在工廠第一線設訂配額標準。
  12. 讓員工都享有以工作為榮的權利︰基層工人同樣有權以工作的成果為榮,不應剝奪他們這項權利。「管理者的權力感化人心,落實在品質的表現上。」「工程部門及管理階層的人員,也有以工作成果為榮的權利。」對於剝奪此權利的障礙,應當謀求克服之道。也就是說,除了一些必須注意的事項外,還應廢止年度考核績效以及目標管理。
  13. 擬訂有活力的教育與自我改進計畫。
  14. 讓企業組織內每一分子都投入工作,以「完成心態上的轉變」。這是大家的事。

Resources: http://tw.myblog.yahoo.com/jw!oBk7g4CFRU.VghzGcQ--/article?mid=188

[Trans.] [EWR] 企業戰情室的觀念

「企業戰情室」的觀念
戰場上要獲勝,情報的蒐集與分析是首要的任務,因此在任何大小戰役中的決策中心都會設立戰情室, 以便正確、快速的將各種情報來源的資訊整合起來,作為決策的依據。同樣地, 這也是商場上「企業戰情室」設立的主要目的。
「企業戰情室」就是將企業營運過程中所蒐集、獲得的各種內部與外部資訊,經由轉換、整合的技術與過程, 儲存到資料倉儲(Data Warehouse)中,然後透過Data MiningOLAP等工具,以適當的圖、表等型態呈現給企業的主管, 以作為決策的參考和依據。這就是屬於分析型CRM系統 (Analytical CRM)的範圍了。
而所謂的「企業戰情室」系統之中,究竟該包含那些資訊呢? 這個問題的答案是很難回答的, 因為對於不同的產業來說,「企業戰情室」系統中所應該提供的資訊幾乎是完全不同的。 甚至在同一種行業別中,因為每家公司的規模、經營方式、市場定位都不盡相同, 所以很少有兩家公司的企業戰情室系統會完全相同。但是如果從系統所提供的資訊類別來看, 其實還是有脈絡可循的,主要來說不外乎包含經營績效、市場分析、作業管理等範圍。
The Concept of Enterprise War Room (EWR)

If we want to overcome all the difficulties in a war, collecting and analyzing information are in the top priority. Therefore, in every scale of battle, we need a war room in the decision center, so that we can integrate all the resources of information more efficiently and effectively. Similarly, this is also the main purpose of establishing Enterprise War Room in commerce.

The concept of Enterprise War Room includes collecting and acquiring internal and external information in the enterprise operating process, transferring and integrating the technology and processes, storing data into Data Warehouse, and presenting data in appropriate format of diagrams or charts through Data Mining and OLAP tools. The above statements belong to Analytical CRM scope.

In addition, what kinds of information should so-called Enterprise War Room Systems include? The answer should differ from industry to industry. Because in different industries, the data or information included in the system should be totally different. Moreover, even in the same industry, different companies may have different scales, operating styles, and marketing positions. Therefore, it’s hard to find 2 companies using the same enterprise war room systems. However, we can still find out some similarities from the information offered by the systems such as operating performance, marketing analysis, and operating management and so on.


中文資料來源:http://www.my-gd.com/CRM/tw/CRM/CRM-029.asp

[Trans.] [Quality] 品質管理執行工具


經濟部中央標準局對於品質的定義:品質為產品或服務的總合性特徵與特性,此種總合性的特徵與特性使得產品或服務,具有滿足顧客明訂和潛在需求之能力。
三、TQM的執行工具
TQM可以分成兩個部份:品質的哲學觀與品質的改善工具及技術,二者相輔相成缺一不可,以下就實施TQM常用之執行工具作簡要說明:
(一)腦力激盪法(Brainstorming)
腦力激盪法是在1938年左右,當時擔任美國廣告代理商BBOD公司副總裁的Alex F. Osborn 所想出來的。簡而言之,是幾個人集合在一起,圍繞著某個問題自由奔放地互相提出意見或構想的一種會議形式。根據Osborn的說法是指「用頭腦(brain)猛烈攻擊(storm)問題」之意(楊平吉譯,民81:25-26)
至於腦力激盪法目的約略有三點(戴久永,民81:179)
1、利用創造性想法為手段,集體思考為特色。
2、使與會成員發揮最大的想像力。
3、根據一個靈感激發另一個靈感的原理,產生出許多創造性思想,在從中選出值得實行的最佳創意。

According to the Ministry of Economic Affairs, the definition of quality is the integrated characteristics of the products or service, the kind of characteristics could make the products and services have the capability of satisfying customers’ requirement or potential needs.
A.    The executing tools of TQM
TQM can be divided into 2 sections: the philosophy of the quality and the improving tools and techniques of the quality. The 2 sections benefited each other and are indispensible. The followings is brief introduction of common tools for implementing TQM.
a.       Brainstorming
Brainstorming was come up by the vice presidents of the American ad agent BBOD Alex F. Osbom. In short, it is a conference format that several people gathering together prose new idea or opinion with a wild mind. According to Osborn, it means that “fiercely storm questions with brains” (楊平吉譯,民81:25-26)
The purposes of brainstorming are approximately as the following:
1)      The characteristic is in a means of creative thinking and group thinking.
2)      Arouse the most possibility of participants’ creativity.
3)      Based on a theory that one inspiration could arouse another, more creative thoughts thus surface, the we can select the best creation which is worth to be implemented.

(二)巴瑞多圖(Pareto Chart)
巴瑞多圖的起源可溯及1897年,義大利經濟學家Viltredo Pareto研究社會經濟結構時,提出公式說明所得集中於少數人的情況,也就是所謂80/20比的原則,表示百分之八十的功能僅來自於百分之二十的原因,亦即「重要的少數,瑣細的多數」(Vital few,trivial many)。而後Joseph M. Juran將此法應用於品質管理。
因此,巴瑞多圖乃是依據造成某一影響之各原因重要性予以有次序排列的途徑。一般來說,改善工作由最重要之處入手,然後依此類推(Carr & Littman,1993:70)。以往的品質管理常用百分之八十的檢驗去找出百分之二十的問題,不過衡諸這些問題的價植,實際根本毋須花費組織如許多的心力(Hutchins,1984:64)。組織的資源畢竟有限,假若能集中資源先去解決重要的問題,非但減少了無謂的浪費並且提高了組織的效能。可見巴瑞多圖具有下列數項功能:
1、可以幫助吾人在構成問題的項目中找出何種項目是最重要的。
2、可以客觀的獲知該項目對於整體到底會造成多大的影響。
3、可以讓大家找到共同努力的目標對主要重點項目進行改善。
4、選擇值得必須改善的項目,可以利用團隊分工加以解決

(三)特性要因圖(Cause and Effect Diagram)
石川馨首次在1953年,與川崎製鐵葺合工廠的人們一起進行要因分析時,把這些人的意見用魚骨狀圖形予以歸納起來,這就是特性要因圖的誕生,至今對要因情報的蒐集仍發揮強有力的效果(葉德芬,民75:125)。故又稱石川圖(Ishikawa Diagram),又因其狀似魚骨,亦稱魚骨圖(Fishbone Diagram)。另外由於此圖闡明原因與結果的關係,故亦稱因果圖(Cause-and-effect Diagram)
簡單的說,一個問題的特性或結果受到一些要因的影響時,將這些要因加以整理成為有相互關係而有條理的圖形,此圖形就稱為特性要因圖(黃文勝,民82:53)

b.      Pareto Chart
The origin of Pareto Chart can be traced back to 1897, when the Italian Economist Viltredo Pareto had a research on the structure of social economy, he proposed a model that introduced the income came from the minority, which was so-called 80/20 principle. The principle showed 80% of the functions merely came from 20% of the reasons, namely, Vital few, trivial many. Later on, Joseph M. Juran applied the method to quality management.
Thus, Pareto Chart is still a method with sequential array based on the importance of affecting factors. Generally speaking, improving work should be started at the beginning, and go to the next step(Carr & Littman,1993:70).
In the past, the quality management unit usually uses 80% of inspection to find out 20% question. However, after evaluating the value of the problem, we could find out that it is unnecessary to cost the organization so much (Hutchins,1984:64). After all, the resources of the organization are limited, if we can put the resourced to solve more important problems, we can not only reduced the meaningless waste, and enhance the effectiveness of the organization. According to the above reasons, we can conclude that the Pareto Chart has the following functions:
1.      The Pareto Chart can help us to find out which item is the most important one to construct the problem.
2.      The Pareto Chart can help us to acquire the information about how the item would affect the whole group objectively.
3.      The Pareto Chart can help us to find out the common objective for the whole group and improve the main important item.
4.      The Pareto Chart can help us to select items which need to be improved, and could be solved by teamwork.

c.       Cause and Effect Diagram
The birth of the cause and effect diagram could be traced back in 1953 when Ishikawa analyzed the case and effect with the staff in the Kawasaki Steel. They use fishbone-shaped diagram to categorize their opinions. This method still has a powerful effect on collecting the main cause in formation. (葉德芬,民75:125) This kind of diagram also called Ishikawa diagram, and also fishbone diagram for its shape. Besides, because the diagram elaborate the relationship between cause and effect, it’s also called Cause-and-effect Diagram.
In short, a diagram which is used to collect some causes and effects of a problem and shows the relationship among them is called cause-and-effect diagram.

(四)檢核表(Check List)
檢核表乃是以簡單的數據用容易瞭解的方式做成圖表或表格,只
要記上檢查記號並加以統計整理便可以作為進一步分析或核對檢查。檢查表的目的主要為(鄭清和,民77:49-50)
1、為了便於蒐集數據而設計的一種表格或圖表。
2、用很簡單的劃記、符號、數字記入表格或圖表,而能一目瞭然地
看出其結果的一種手法、工具。
3、在日常管理改善上,用處大、效率高、冒險性小的工具,是解決
問題的先決條件。
4、分析問題時能清楚地抓住問題的重心。
檢查表可以分為兩大類:(1)點檢用檢查表:主要是調查作業過
程中的情形,可以防止作業之遺漏或疏忽。(2)紀錄用檢查表:主要是
調查作業結果。


B.     Check List
Check List is graph or chart made based on simple data in a way which is easy to understand. Researchers can have further analyze and check with the check symbol and statistical analysis. The purposes of the checklist are(鄭清和,民77:49-50):
1.      To be convenient to collect data.
2.      Use simple symbol, sign, and number to record in the graph or chart, making the result clearly seen.
3.      Useful way of improving daily routine management, which has low risk and high efficiency with top priority to solve problems.
4.      To grasp the key point of the problems accurately.
Check List can be grouped into two categories: (1) check list for inspection: the main purpose is to check the condition of the operation process to prevent the negligence and omissions.  (2) check list for record: the main purpose is to comprehend the result.